Nephrol Dial Transplant (2003) 18: 892-898
© 2003 European Renal Association-European Dialysis and Transplant Association
Impaired renal function is associated with markers of endothelial dysfunction and increased inflammatory activity
1 Department of Internal Medicine, 3 Department of Clinical Chemistry and 4 Department of Nephrology, Institute for Cardiovascular Research, Vrije Universiteit Medical Centre, Amsterdam and 2 Department of Internal Medicine, Amphia Hospital (Langendijk), Breda, The Netherlands
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Abstract |
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Background. Patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) as well as those with mild renal insufficiency are at increased risk for the development of cardiovascular disease, which cannot be attributed entirely to traditional risk factors. Endothelial dysfunction and chronic inflammatory activity, two important phenomena in atherogenesis, can be found in ESRD. At present, it is unclear whether endothelial dysfunction and chronic inflammatory activity are related to renal function in the pre-dialysis stage.
Methods. In a cross-sectional, single-centre study, four groups of 20 subjects with renal function ranging from a normal, calculated creatinine clearance (>90 ml/min) to a pre-dialysis situation (<31 ml/min) were investigated. We measured markers of endothelial function [von Willebrand factor (vWf), soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1), soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (sVCAM-1), tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA), plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) and E-selectin (ES)], and markers of inflammatory activity [secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) and C-reactive protein (CRP)]. Using these markers, composite endothelial function and inflammatory activity scores were constructed.
Results. Creatinine clearance correlated with the endothelial function score (r=-0.43, P<0.001), the inflammatory activity score (r=-0.53, P<0.05), vWf (r=-0.54, P<0.001), sVCAM-1 (r=-0.50, P<0.001), sPLA2 (r=-0.28, P<0.05), homocysteine (r=-0.61, P<0.001), age (r=-0.54, P<0.001) and blood pressure (r=-0.44, P<0.001). In multivariate analyses, creatinine clearance was an independent determinant of the endothelial function score (ß=-0.34, P=0.006), plasma vWf (ß=-0.37, P=0.022) and sICAM-1 (ß=-0.33, P=0.012). The relationship of creatinine clearance with sVCAM-1 and endothelial function score was not significant when plasma homocysteine was added to the model. Creatinine clearance was also a determinant of the inflammatory activity score (ß=-0.31, P=0.025) and sPLA2 (ß=-0.32, P=0.024), although this was no longer significant after correction for systolic blood pressure.
Conclusions. Renal dysfunction is associated with markers of endothelial dysfunction and inflammatory activity. Plasma homocysteine may be an intermediate factor in the relationship between endothelial dysfunction and renal function, while blood pressure may modulate the association between inflammatory activity and renal function.
Keywords: endothelial function; inflammatory activity; renal insufficiency; secretory phospholipase A2; vascular cell adhesion molecule-1; von Willebrand factor
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Introduction |
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Patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) are at high risk of developing cardiovascular disease (CVD), which limits their life expectancy considerably [1]. Prospective studies in patients with milder degrees of renal impairment have also shown that a reduced glomerular filtration rate (defined as elevated serum creatinine level or reduced creatinine clearance) is associated with an increased (cardiovascular) mortality and morbidity [2,3]. This excess risk cannot be attributed totally to established cardiovascular risk factors. Therefore, the nature of the link between renal function and CVD remains to be explained.
On the one hand, renal insufficiency may be part of a generalized (subclinical) atherothrombotic process. On the other, it is conceivable that a reduction in renal function creates an atherogenic milieu, e.g. by the retention of vasotoxic substances or by metabolic changes that may lead to increased oxidative stress or an enhanced (low-grade) inflammatory state. Such changes may cause endothelial dysfunction, which is an important first step in atherogenesis [4].
Endothelial dysfunction, characterized by increased plasma concentrations of endothelium-derived proteins or reduced endothelium-dependent vasodilatation, has been demonstrated in ESRD patients [5]. However, it is unknown whether this is the result of the lost kidney function or merely reflects the high prevalence of established vascular disease in ESRD patients. In patients with pre-dialysis renal failure, endothelium-dependent vasodilatation is also reduced [6]. In addition, some biochemical markers of endothelial dysfunction, such as von Willebrand factor (vWf) and soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (sVCAM-1), may be increased [6]. It remains unclear, however, whether renal function per se is related to this endothelial dysfunction.
Plasma levels of pro-inflammatory response markers, such as C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumour necrosis factor-
(TNF-), are also increased in pre-dialysis renal patients [6]. However, the relationship between inflammatory activity and creatinine clearance or endothelial function is not well defined in this population. We hypothesized that renal insufficiency per se contributes to endothelial dysfunction and inflammatory activity, and as such may be causally related to CVD.
In view of these considerations, we investigated, in individuals with a wide range of creatinine clearance, whether impaired renal function was associated with changes in plasma concentrations of markers of endothelial dysfunction and/or of inflammatory activity.
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Subjects and methods |
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Subjects
The protocol was approved by the ethics committee of the Vrije Universiteit Medical Centre, and all patients gave their informed consent. Individuals were recruited from the out-patient clinics of the Departments of Nephrology and Internal Medicine of the Vrije Universiteit Medical Centre. Exclusion criteria were age younger than 18 years or older than 75 years, haemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis, renal transplantation, diabetes mellitus (ADA criteria), inflammatory diseases, WHO performance >2, other severe disease (malignancy or liver disease) or use of folic acid, immunosuppressive drugs, penicillamine or anticonvulsant drugs.
Study design
Eighty subjects were included in this cross-sectional, single-centre study. Consecutive patients were included until four groups of 20 subjects were formed, with a creatinine clearance (calculated with the formula of Cockcroft and Gault as a surrogate marker for the glomerular filtration rate) of 
91 ml/min, 61–90 ml/min, 31–60 ml/min and <31 ml/min. This was performed to ensure a balanced representation throughout the whole spectrum of renal function. After correcting the creatinine clearance for body surface area, the group was divided into quartiles. The first quartile (with the highest creatinine clearance) served as the control group. In 65 (81%) of the 80 individuals, a renal disease was diagnosed: hypertensive nephrosclerosis in 20, polycystic kidney disease in 15, primary glomerular disease in 14, urolithiasis in four, vasculitis in four, chronic pyelonephritis in two, Alport syndrome in two and other renal diseases in four. Most of the 15 (19%) patients without renal disease were evaluated for chronic fatigue or treated for thyroidal illness. Of these 15 patients without renal disease, 10 were included in the control group and five in the group with a creatinine clearance between 61 and 90 ml/min. For each patient, data were collected with regard to age, cardiovascular medication (antihypertensive medication, platelet aggregation inhibitors and lipid-lowering drugs), smoking status (having smoked in the past year), presence of CVD (history of myocardial infarction, angina pectoris, stroke or peripheral arterial occlusive disease), body mass index, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure (the mean of three measurements during one visit, performed with a mercury sphygmomanometer at the left arm, with the individual seated). The presence of hypertension was defined as a blood pressure >140 mmHg, >90 mmHg and/or use of antihypertensive medication. Hypercholesterolaemia was defined as a serum total cholesterol level >6.5 mmol/l and/or the use of lipid-lowering medication. Blood samples were taken in the fasting state. Plasma was separated and frozen immediately at -20°C for homocysteine and at -70°C for markers of endothelial function and inflammation, until analysis.
Measurement of markers of endothelial function and inflammatory activity
We determined vWf, soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1), sVCAM-1, soluble E-selectin (ES), tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) as markers of endothelial function. Plasma vWf antigen was measured by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), with rabbit anti-vWf antigen as a capturing antibody and a peroxidase-conjugated rabbit anti-vWf antigen as a detecting antibody (Dako, Copenhagen, Denmark). The concentration of vWf was expressed as a percentage of the antigen concentration in normal pooled plasma, which is defined as 100%. The intra- and interassay variations were 2.3 and 3.8%, respectively. sICAM-1 and sVCAM-1 were assayed by ELISA methods (Diaclone, Besancon, France) with intra- and interassay coefficients of variation of 4.0 and 8.6% for sICAM-1 and 4.0 and 8.6% for sVCAM-1, respectively. Commercially available ELISA kits were used for the measurement of ES (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN), tPA antigen (Imulyse tPA, Biopool, Umeå, Sweden) and PAI-1 (Innotest PAI-1, Innogenetics, Zwijndrecht, Belgium).
Plasma concentrations of CRP and secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) were measured as markers of inflammatory activity. CRP was measured with a highly sensitive in-house ELISA, with rabbit anti-CRP (Dako, Copenhagen, Denmark) as a capturing and tagging antibody, with intra- and interassay coefficients of variation of 3.8 and 4.7%, respectively. Antigen concentrations of sPLA2 were measured with an ELISA with two different monoclonal antibodies against human sPLA2 (Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK), which were used as coating and capturing antibodies, respectively. All markers were measured in duplicate.
Other measurements
Plasma total (free plus protein-bound) homocysteine (tHcy) was measured by HPLC with fluorescence detection. Intra- and interassay coefficients of variation were 2.1 and 5.1%, respectively. Plasma total cholesterol and serum creatinine were measured with standard laboratory methods, as were urinary levels of creatinine and protein. Serum folate and vitamin B12 levels were determined by radioassay (ICN Pharmaceuticals, Costa Mesa, CA).
Statistical analysis
Variables were tested for normality and log-transformed if necessary. ANOVA was used to test differences between groups. When significant differences were found, pairwise comparisons were made using the Student's t-test. Pearson's test was used to assess correlation coefficients. Multiple linear regression analysis was performed to investigate the relationship between all markers of endothelial function and inflammatory activity as dependent factors, and creatinine clearance and other factors (tHcy, plasma total cholesterol and blood pressure) as independent variables, with forced entry of age, gender, smoking and prior CVD.
To explore further the association between creatinine clearance and endothelial function and inflammatory activity, we created mean and SD scores for markers of endothelial function and inflammatory activity. This approach was used to reduce the influences of biological variability of separate measurement, and to reduce the number of associations to be investigated, as has been described by O'Brien [7]. The method has been used before by our group for evaluating markers of endothelial dysfunction, but has not been validated because of the lack of a gold standard for endothelial dysfunction [8]. For every individual, each variable was expressed as the SD of the difference from the population mean. The mean scores were calculated as the mean of these SDs. The endothelial function score was calculated as (vWf+sVCAM-1+sICAM-1+ES+PAI-1-selectin+tPA)/6, and the inflammatory activity score as (CRP+sPLA2)/2. Because sICAM-1 probably is a marker not only of endothelial function but also of inflammatory activity, we recalculated the inflammatory activity score after addition of sICAM-1. Thus, high scores reflect high levels of endothelial dysfunction and inflammatory activity, respectively. A P-value <0.05 was considered to reflect statistical significance.
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Results |
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Table 1
shows baseline characteristics of the participants. There were no significant differences with regard to gender, body mass index, presence of hypercholesterolaemia, prior CVD, serum cholesterol, vitamin B12 and folic acid, and use of acetylsalicylic acid or a statin, among the four groups. Patients in the control group had a significantly lower mean age, blood pressure (both systolic and diastolic), plasma level of homocysteine and urinary excretion of protein compared with the patients in the other three groups. Otherwise, in the control group, the prevalence of hypertension was significantly lower than that in the other three groups, as was the use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor antagonists. In addition, the prevalence of active smokers was lower in the control group. In one male subject, a very high plasma homocysteine level was found (94.6 µmol/l). This was shown to be caused by a vitamin B12 deficiency (serum level 65 pmol/l) due to pernicious anaemia. This subject was excluded from the analyses when plasma homocysteine was considered as a variable. In all other participants, vitamin B12 status was normal.
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Table 2
shows the plasma concentrations of the markers of endothelial function and inflammatory activity.
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Table 3
shows the correlations of creatinine clearance with markers of endothelial function, inflammatory activity and conventional risk factors for CVD. Creatinine clearance was significantly related to the endothelial function score, vWf and sVCAM-1 (Figure 1). The relationships between creatinine clearance and the inflammatory activity score and sPLA2 are shown in Figure 2. One subject showed very high inflammatory markers (CRP 51.0 mg/l and sPLA2 41.8 µg/l) without signs or symptoms of disease. When this patient was omitted from the analyses, inflammatory activity score (r=-0.43, P<0.001), CRP (r=-0.35, P<0.01) and sPLA2 (r=-0.34, P<0.01) correlated even more strongly with creatinine clearance. Plasma tHcy correlated negatively with creatinine clearance (r=-0.61, P<0.001), plasma folate (r=-0.34, P<0.05) and plasma vitamin B12 (r=-0.24, P=0.07).
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Endothelial function
In the multivariate analysis (with forced entry of gender, age, smoking and prior CVD), creatinine clearance was a significant determinant of the endothelial function score [ß (standardized)=-0.34, P=0.006]. After addition of systolic blood pressure to the model, the relationship between creatinine clearance and endothelial function score was somewhat attenuated (ß=-0.27, P=0.029). Substituting diastolic or mean blood pressure for systolic blood pressure did not materially change any of the results. After addition of plasma tHcy to the model, creatinine clearance was no longer a significant determinant of the endothelial function score (ß=-0.05, P=0.735). Plasma tHcy was associated independently with the endothelial function score (ß=0.28, P=0.031). The presence of an underlying renal disease was not a significant determinant of the endothelial function score (ß=0.10, P=0.405), nor were the separately entered diagnoses hypertensive nephrosclerosis (ß=-0.17, P=0.226), polycystic kidney disease (ß=-0.03, P=0.808) and primary glomerular disease (ß=0.19, P=0.118).
When the individual markers of endothelial function were analysed separately, creatinine clearance was a significant determinant of vWf, sICAM-1 and sVCAM-1. Addition of systolic blood pressure to the model did not influence these relationships. When plasma tHcy was added to the model, creatinine clearance remained a significant determinant of vWf (ß=-0.37, P=0.022), but the strength of the associations between creatinine clearance and sVCAM-1 (ß=-0.44, P=0.001) and sICAM-1 (ß=-0.33, P=0.012) decreased (ß=-0.22, P=0.165 and ß=-0.31, P=0.065, respectively). Plasma tHcy was associated independently with sVCAM-1 (ß=0.37, P=0.007). The association between creatinine clearance and vWf remained significant after addition of plasma total cholesterol to the model (ß=-0.47, P<0.001).
Inflammatory activity
Creatinine clearance was an independent determinant of the inflammatory activity score (ß=-0.31, P=0.025). However, after adjustment for systolic blood pressure, this association was no longer significant (ß=-0.19, P=0.141). Systolic blood pressure was associated independently with the inflammatory activity score (ß=0.41, P<0.001). Addition of sICAM-1 to the inflammatory activity score did not materially change the results. The presence of an underlying renal disease was not a significant determinant of the inflammatory activity score (ß=0.04, P=0.762), nor were the separately entered diagnoses hypertensive nephrosclerosis (ß=0.20, P=0.206), polycystic kidney disease (ß=-0.00, P=0.974) and primary glomerular disease (ß=0.02, P=0.871).
Multivariate analysis of the individual markers of inflammatory activity showed that creatinine clearance was an independent determinant of sPLA2 (ß=-0.32, P=0.024). The relationship with CRP was borderline significant (ß=-0.25, P=0.071). After adjustment for systolic blood pressure, both these associations were no longer significant (ß=0.18, P<0.156 and ß=-0.17, P=0.221, respectively). Systolic blood pressure proved to be an independent determinant of plasma sPLA2 and CRP (ß=0.46, P<0.001 and ß=0.28, P=0.018, respectively).
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Discussion |
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In this study, impaired renal function was associated with markers of endothelial dysfunction and increased inflammatory activity, as assessed by the scores derived from several different biochemical markers. The individual markers which showed the strongest associations with renal function were vWf, sVCAM-1, sICAM-1, sPLA2 and CRP. We also showed, for the first time, that this effect is linear and is present already in patients with mild renal insufficiency.
The endothelial function score was no longer significantly associated with renal function when plasma tHcy was added as a factor in the multivariate model. The same was true for the relationship between sVCAM-1 and renal function, and plasma tHcy affected the association between endothelial function score and renal function probably by its relationship with sVCAM-1.
The relationship between renal function and sVCAM-1 has not been investigated extensively. In agreement with others, we found that plasma sVCAM-1 was elevated in patients with impaired renal function [6]. Urinary excretion of sVCAM-1 is very low in healthy persons and may rise in certain types of renal failure [9]. Decreased excretion of sVCAM-1 therefore does not explain the elevated plasma sVCAM-1 in individuals with reduced creatinine clearance.
The adhesion molecule sVCAM-1 is believed to play a crucial role in the development of atherosclerosis [10]. In the Hoorn study, it was shown prospectively that, among subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus, the relative risk of cardiovascular mortality was 1.13 (95% confidence interval 1.07–1.20) per 100 ng/ml increase in sVCAM-1 [11].
The relationship between creatinine clearance and sVCAM-1 was abolished when plasma tHcy was added into the regression model. It is well known that plasma tHcy increases with declining renal function [12]. In our study, plasma tHcy was related independently not only to creatinine clearance, but also to plasma sVCAM-1 level. The most likely interpretation of this finding is that plasma tHcy is an intermediate in this relationship, i.e. that renal insufficiency leads to elevated plasma tHcy levels which, in turn, induce endothelial dysfunction reflected by elevated sVCAM-1 levels. This is supported by findings in a murine model, in which diet-induced hyperhomocysteinaemia resulted in enhanced atherosclerosis with increased expression of sVCAM-1 in the arterial wall [13]. In addition, a recent in vitro study showed that human aortic endothelial cells exhibited an increase of VCAM-1 expression when homocysteine was added to the medium [14]. An alternative interpretation is that homocysteine causes both renal insufficiency and endothelial dysfunction (i.e. confounds the association between creatinine clearance and sVCAM-1), but there is no firm evidence that homocysteine can in fact cause renal insufficiency.
The inverse relationship between creatinine clearance and plasma vWf level that we found was independent of conventional cardiovascular risk factors and plasma homocysteine. Thambyrajah et al. also observed elevated plasma vWf concentrations in 80 subjects with non-diabetic chronic renal failure [15]. In that study, however, the relationship between plasma vWf and renal function could not be defined accurately, probably as a result of the smaller range of creatinine clearance (14–54 ml/min). In another, smaller study, plasma vWf tended to increase with declining renal function [6]. We found that plasma vWf was already increased at an early stage of renal insufficiency (creatinine clearance <91 ml/min). This increase in plasma vWf is probably not caused by diminished renal excretion because, in healthy persons, urinary vWf levels are undetectable [16]. Although it is possible that the metabolism of vWf is altered in renal insufficiency, we speculate that the rise in plasma vWf level is the result of endothelial dysfunction caused by renal insufficiency. The clinical importance of high plasma vWf levels is underlined by studies that have shown that plasma vWf is a predictor of microalbuminuria, CVD and mortality in both diabetic and non-diabetic patients [17].
Creatinine clearance was an independent predictor of the inflammatory activity score, but this relationship disappeared when adjusted for systolic blood pressure. The relationship between the inflammatory markers sPLA2 and CRP, and blood pressure, however, is unclear. In the WOSCOP study, CRP significantly correlated with systolic blood pressure, while sPLA2 did not [18]. In that study, the predictive value of CRP for coronary events was attenuated when systolic blood pressure was included in the multivariate model, whereas the association between sPLA2 and coronary events was not influenced [18]. The precise relationship between inflammatory activity and blood pressure deserves further investigation.
Renal function has been implicated as an independent cardiovascular risk factor, especially in individuals with essential hypertension, heart failure and coronary artery disease [19]. Our study may provide a clue as to why renal function may act as the ‘Cinderella of cardiovascular risk profile’ [19]. Reduced glomerular filtration rate may lead to endothelial dysfunction and inflammatory activity, that can be detected by measurement of biochemical markers which have been shown to predict CVD. The cross-sectional character of our study does not allow any conclusion on the causality of these relationships. Furthermore, the pathophysiological mechanism by which reduction of glomerular filtration rate leads to dysfunction of the endothelium and to increased inflammatory activity cannot be derived from our data and remains to be elucidated. Our study population was heterogeneous concerning the underlying renal disorders. However, (the type of) renal disease was not a determinant of the markers of endothelial function and inflammatory activity. The high prevalence of hypertension in the groups with the lowest creatinine clearance is a common finding, for which we chose not to match, but to correct with a multivariate analysis. We found a possible role for homocysteine in the rise of sVCAM-1, and of blood pressure in the rise of sPLA2. In addition, retention of uraemic toxins, e.g. advanced glycation end-products, or oxidative stress may contribute to these processes. This hypothesis could be tested in prospective trials with subjects with mild to moderate renal insufficiency using interventions which aim to improve endothelial function and lower the inflammatory state. It is of note that homocysteine-lowering treatment with folic acid did not result in amelioration of endothelium-dependent vasodilatation or plasma vWf in patients with pre-dialysis renal failure [20]. In these studies, the effect of folic acid on sVCAM-1, however, was not investigated.
The clinical relevance of the present study may be that in individuals with even minor reductions of creatinine clearance, an aggressive approach should be adopted to prevent further decline of renal function, e.g. by intensive treatment of elevated blood pressure and proteinuria. Whether patients with mild renal failure should be treated with specific anti-inflammatory agents currently is unknown.
In summary, this cross-sectional study showed that impaired renal function per se was associated with endothelial dysfunction and increased inflammatory activity as assessed by plasma levels of vWf, sVCAM-1, sICAM-1, CRP and sPLA2.
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Notes |
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Correspondence and offprint requests to: Frank Stam, Department of Internal Medicine, Vrije Universiteit Medical Centre, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Email: f.stam{at}vumc.nl
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[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Accepted in revised form: 8. 1.03
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C. M. Gibson, R. L. Dumaine, E. V. Gelfand, S. A. Murphy, D. A. Morrow, S. D. Wiviott, R. P. Giugliano, C. P. Cannon, E. M. Antman, E. Braunwald, et al. Association of glomerular filtration rate on presentation with subsequent mortality in non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndrome; observations in 13307 patients in five TIMI trials Eur. Heart J., November 2, 2004; 25(22): 1998 - 2005. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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